Advances in plant growth-promoting bacterial inoculant technology: formulations and practical perspectives 1998 2013 Plant and Soil

Inoculation of plants to enhance yield of crops and performance of other plants is a century old, proven technology for rhizobia and a newer venue for plant growth-promoting bacteria and other plant symbionts. The two main aspects dominating the success of inoculation are the effectiveness of the bacterial isolate and the proper application technology. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are ~18-30 nucleotide long, single-stranded, synthetic polymers of nucleic acids with diverse chemistries [44, 64]. The ASOs are small molecule drugs that target mRNAs based on complementary base pairing and interfere with different aspects of gene expression and regulation.

Encapsulation of the PGPB Bacillus subtilis in alginate beads enriched with humic acid yielded high viability of the encapsulated bacteria with minimum cell loss during storage for 5months. For 1 week at different pHs, this formulation yielded steady and constant cell release from the bead. Successful plant growth promotion of lettuce by the encapsulated bacteria was demonstrated (Young et al. 2006).

Macro- and micro-formulations of alginate

Consequently, a major role of formulation of inoculants is to provide a more suitable microenvironment, combined with physical protection for a prolonged period to prevent a rapid decline of introduced bacteria. Inoculants for field-scale use have to be designed to provide a dependable source of bacteria that survives in the soil and become available to crops, when needed (Bashan 1998). Many inoculants do not do this, yet this is the main purpose of inoculant formulation. Some of the common modified mRNA nucleosides are N6-methyladenosine (m6A), 5-methylcytidine (m5C), N7-methylguanosine (m7G), pseudouridine (s2U), inosine, and many 2′-O-methylated nucleosides (a part of the 5′-terminal cap), as shown in Fig. Each chemical modification plays a specific role like, m6A enhances mRNA turnover, regulates embryonic stem cell development, favors RNA decay, pre-mRNA splicing, adipogenesis, and prostate cancer bone metastasis [170,171,172,173,174].

The current cancer treatment modalities, including surgery and chemotherapy, are far from ideal approaches, especially for the advanced stage tumors, as most of the tumors exhibit mutational diversity [7, 54,55,56]. These mutational heterogeneities play a significant role in cancer progression, chemoresistance, and immune escape [54, 55, 57]. Thus, instead of conventional targeted therapies (that include protein as a drug target), RNA-based treatment strategies are potentially superior, as they have a diverse target range with enhanced drug-like properties for cancer therapies [38, 58]. Several approaches have been employed to modulate gene-function at RNA level in the cancer cells, including base editing, small molecules targeting RNA, employment of synthetic antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and exogenously expressed mRNAs [42, 43, 59]. The recent advancements in terms of time, safety, pharmacokinetics, and potency further provide support for exploring RNA toolbox to develop potential anticancer therapies. Because food, pharmacology, nanotechnology, and cosmetics are the larger research fields employing immobilization, several technical improvements derived from these fields, aiming to make the polymer more suitable for immobilization of biological materials, were proposed.

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The current trend is to produce contaminant-free inoculants and quite a few (mainly for rhizobia) exist in the marketplace. Using γ-irradiation is the most suitable way to sterilize any carrier because the sterilization process makes almost no change to physical and chemical properties of the material. Practically, carrier material is packed in thin-walled polyethylene bag and then γ-irradiated.

• Steric block ASOs bind with the specific sequence of target and work by modulating the translation, processing of RNA, splicing, RNA-protein interactions, and interactome of target RNA [65, 78, 79].
• Inoculation of plants to enhance yield of crops and performance of other plants is a century old, proven technology for rhizobia and a newer venue for plant growth-promoting bacteria and other plant symbionts.
• Larger quantities require more storage area and transport, which also increases costs, making this type of inoculation, in general, costlier than inoculating seeds.
• “Inoculant” refers to the final product of formulation containing a carrier and bacterial agent or consortium of microorganisms.
• In recent years, significant advancement has been achieved to develop mRNA-based therapeutics for immune-oncology, protein replacement therapies, and vaccine development [37, 60, 182].

Wet alginate inoculant used as spawn of the white mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) had a shorter adaptation (lag) period and a higher growth rate in pasteurized compost than both liquid spawn and the conventional grain spawn. The superiority of this delivery system is attributed to the high biomass loading capacity of these beads, mycelial protection in the bead microenvironment, and the spatial distribution of the beads in the compost (Friel and McLoughlin 1999). Alginate formulation supported high populations and survival of the phosphate-solubilizing bacteria Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus polymyxa at the elevated storage temperature of 40°C (Viveganandan and Jauhri 2000). Several alginate formulations (macrobeads with and without skim milk and seed coating) of B.

The miRNA hairpin structure, embedded within the primary miRNA strand, is sequentially processed by DROSHA and DICER (both belong to the RNase III family) and finally emerges as a mature miRNA consisting of nucleotides [127, 128]. Mature miRNA sequence is then loaded to the RISC complex and modulates gene expression by binding with the 3′-untranslated region (UTR) of the target gene (Fig. 3). The inhibition of gene expression is directly dependent on miRNA’s complementarity to that of target mRNA [38]. In addition to the inhibition of gene expression, miRNAs also modulate transcriptional regulation. Recent studies showed that miRNAs regulate the methylation of CpG islands in the promoter region of different genes and, thus, directly regulate the transcriptional regulations through epigenetic modifications [129,130,131,132].

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A combination of microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris or C. sorokiniana) and a microalgae growth-promoting bacterium (MGPB, Azospirillum brasilense), co-immobilized in macroalginate beads, was developed to remove phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients from municipal wastewater. Co-immobilization of the two microorganisms provided superior results for removing these https://naturepotion.com/groundbreaking-investigation-reveals-comprehensive/ nutrients than the microalgae alone (de-Bashan et al. 2002a, b, 2004; Hernandez et al. 2006; Covarrubias et al. 2012; Cruz et al. 2013). The debris from the wastewater treatment, alginate beads containing the two microorganisms, were used to improve growth of sorghum and enhance fertility of eroded desert soil (Trejo et al. 2012; Lopez et al. 2013).

In our experimental design, we used epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeted polyplexes (GE11) initially characterized in vitro using 125I uptake assays. Mice bearing an orthotopic glioblastoma were treated subsequently with mono-dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO)-PEG24-GE11/NIS or bisDBCO-PEG24-GE11/NIS, and 24–48 h later, 124I uptake was assessed by positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The best-performing polyplex in the imaging studies was then selected for 131I therapy studies. The in vitro studies showed EGFR-dependent and NIS-specific transfection efficiency of the polyplexes. These studies demonstrate the potential of EGFR-targeted polyplex-mediated NIS gene therapy as a new strategy for the therapy of glioblastoma. In summary, a practical formulation must maintain, over acceptable periods of time, enough viable bacteria to ensure successful seed inoculation.

Characteristics of a carrier for inoculants; the ideal inoculant

However, the development of best practices for high quality of UAV mapping are often overlooked representing a drawback for their wider adoption. UAV solutions then require an inter-disciplinary research, integrating different expertise and combining several hardware and software components on the same platform. Despite the high number of peer-reviewed papers on UAVs, little attention has been given to the interaction between research topics from different domains (such as robotics and computer vision) that impact the use of UAV in remote sensing. The aim of this paper is to (i) review best practices for the use of UAVs for remote sensing and mapping applications and (ii) report on current trends – including adjacent domains – for UAV use and discuss their future impact in photogrammetry and remote sensing. Hardware developments, navigation and acquisition strategies, and emerging solutions for data processing in innovative applications are considered in this analysis.

Dried polymeric carriers

Using a clay soil inoculant mix with powdered elemental sulfur, inoculation of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus sp.) along with rhizobia provided a synergistic interaction that promoted yield and oil content of groundnut in sulfur-deficient soils (Anandham et al. 2007). In general, shortly after suspensions of bacteria are inoculated into the soil without a proper carrier, the bacteria population declines rapidly for most species of PGPB. This phenomenon, combined with poor production of bacterial biomass, difficulty sustaining activity in the rhizosphere, and the physiological state of the bacteria at application time, can prevent the buildup of a sufficiently large PGPB population in the rhizosphere. A threshold number of cells, which differs among species, is essential to obtain the intended positive plant response, for example, 106–107 cells⋅plant–1 for the PGPB Azospirillum brasilense (Bashan 1986b). The inherent heterogeneity of the soil is the key obstacle, where introduced bacteria sometimes cannot find an empty niche in the soil. These unprotected, inoculated bacteria must compete with the often better-adapted native microflora and withstand predation by soil microfauna.

RNA-based therapeutic strategies have emerged as an alternative to the conventional protein-based therapies that are difficult to pursue, as adapter proteins or transcription factors. These types of protein molecules can be regulated by modulating mRNA levels or translation of proteins [53, 63]. The primary focus of oligonucleotide-based therapeutics includes gene silencing or activation and splice modulation that provides an extended range of potential targets beyond the conventionally accessible pharmacological strategies. These modalities follow the universal Watson–Crick base pairing rule of complementarity, thus providing the direct interrogation of different putative target sequences. Therefore, it is easy to rationalize, design, and screen-specific leads if the primary sequence of the target gene is available.